Dog Mushers' Clothing Over Time

INTRODUCTION
What do dog mushers wear?   It is probably inevitable that any look at the history and evolution of dog mushing would eventually focus on the dog mushers themselves and just how they prepared themselves for the task of running working sled dogs.  Key to succeeding at this task  is the need to dress appropriately.

Appropriate clothing must certainly keep the dog musher warm, but it must also allow the dog musher to be able to work hard, often exerting him/herself, creating a great deal of energy and producing large amounts of body heat [sweating] which has to be dissipated in order to preserve warmth.  Clothing must allow for ease of movement, it has to be functional, very durable and of course it must be made from readily-available materials.   For the purposes of this article this writer has used the terms dog musher and hunter interchangeably.  Going back hundreds and thousands of years, the dog musher was without exception also a hunter and working with dogs was all about survival.  Of course today, dog mushers tend to be involved in recreation or competition.



FORM FOLLOWING FUNCTION
One aspect of any innovation is the Form Following Function test….in other words,  how is the intended purpose [function] for which  the piece of clothing was developed, influenced by the way in which it has been created and shaped, the conditions under which it is being used and the materials used in the manufacture [form].  It is always fascinating to see those innovations that have withstood the test of time and which have remained essentially unchanged over hundreds and even thousands of years.  At the same time, monitoring the changes that take place in the form of a particular article of clothing over time is equally interesting.

Take as an example, the development and evolution  of the hand covering…..the glove or mitten.   Traditionally Inuit hunters/mushers found it to be practical to make a smaller close fitting hide mitten with the fur worn against the skin. This was sometimes, but not always used in combination with a bulkier hide/skin overmitt  with the fur outwards, all designed to keep their hands warm in extreme arctic weather conditions.  The choice of materials is a reflection of the fact that pre-contact, the only materials readily available for making hand coverings would be untanned animal skins which were not really flexible and did not lend themselves to making small detailed clothing items like gloves, leaving the mitten as the only option.  The mitten shape helps to retain body heat but makes for poor dexterity.  This means that mushers would have to frequently take their mittens off to perform tasks that require dexterity with their bare hands; the musher would ensure that the mitts were fastened to their person so that they would not go missing, and they could be put on very quickly once the task-at-hand was completed.  The musher would also endeavour to ensure that the rest of his/her mushing equipment required a minimum of dexterity….for example the use of bone toggles to hook the dogs to the traces could be performed while still wearing the smaller mittens.  This could also account for the fact that Inuit hunters would frequently leave the harnesses on their dogs for extended periods of time.

With the post-contact introduction of woolen fabric, wool yarn and the techniques of knitting, the concept of the form-fitting glove was introduced as well as the fabrication of less-bulky mittens made from wool blanketing materials.  Wool gloves facilitated dexterity but they did not ensure the necessary warmth if used alone for longer periods of time.  The combination of wool gloves and hide overmitts that could be easily removed allowed for the combination of dexterity and heat retention.

How are mushers keeping their hands warm today?  With the introduction of a host of “modern” synthetic materials designed for retaining warmth and for wicking away perspiration, how have hand coverings changed/evolved?  The fact is, present-day mushers often do not run their dogs for extended periods of time in isolated circumstances and so are not pre-occupied with the need to ensure that their  safety is guaranteed in the event of some kind of mishap.  This means that most “sprint/recreational“ mushers are able to function with gloves made of synthetic fibre-filled fabrics.   However this is certainly not the case on multi-day expeditions and during long distance races like the Yukon Quest.  The modern synthetic materials certainly allow for dexterity but they don’t stand up to harsh conditions.  Is it possible that the perfect example of Form Following Function  has been found with the combination of the wool or polarfleece glove underneath a larger hide/fur or synthetic down/fibrefill overmitt?

It is important to remember that changes in the manner in which dog mushers dress have evolved over time, sometimes very quickly, but not necessarily uniformly.  It is not uncommon that  individual preferences could dictate that garments worn by members of the same group at the same time would differ.   Some mushers would incorporate newly available fabrics or technologies while others would choose to stick with the familiar old ways.  It is interesting to note that even today, with modern fabrics and technology, there are those whose preferences date back to the earliest days of pre contact….perhaps these are outstanding examples of Form Following Function.

PRE-CONTACT
This will be a very general overview description of winter clothing worn by dog mushers of all First Nations groups prior to contact with white Europeans.  There were certainly differences between individual native/indigenous groups that lived throughout the northern parts of both North America and Europe [including Greenland].  These differences were due to local preferences, some specific differences in topography and climate [for example a land-locked lifestyle as opposed to a life in proximity to the ocean], differences in available resources [for example access to specific animals, wood or meteoric metal], and living a nomadic hunter-gathering lifestyle as opposed to one based on animal husbandry.

Inuit Dog Mushers
Historically the Inuit in Canada’s Arctic depended on the hides of the caribou and the seal for their winter clothing.  The skins of some smaller animals such as rabbits, fox and wolverine would also be utilized for specific/specialized purposes.  It should be noted that the hides used by the Inuit were not tanned but were used in a “green“ state, it was essential that they be kept cool or they would quickly begin to deteriorate.

Historically, Inuit men wore a garment known as an anorak, which is essentially a large jacket made with the caribou hair turned inside [next to the body].  This garment is pulled over the hunter’s head, there are no buttons, this garment has a hood that would ideally be trimmed with a strip of  fur from the wolf or wolverine, a type of fur that would shed the musher‘s breath as it condensed when it meets the cold air.  A second similar garment made of caribou hide only this time with the fur pointing to the outside, was worn over this undergarment.  The style and materials of the anorak ensured comfortable warmth in the Arctic winter, its method of construction also allowed the hot, moist body heat [perspiration] to evaporate as cooler air was drawn into the bottom of the anorak which was open and loose fitting and then expelled through the neck opening, picking up moisture from the body heat along the way.   The anorak remains in regular use to this day and the name has even become part of the English language, in extreme cold weather conditions, the traditional caribou hide Inuit anorak is still the “go to” garment.  It is another perfect example of Form Following Function.  

The Inuit hunter would traditionally wear a pair of pants, again made of caribou hide or sealskin although in Greenland made of polar bear hide, held up by suspenders and coming down to the knee.  The footwear or kamiks were made in two and sometimes three layers and they came up to the knee where they meet the pants, ensuring complete coverage and warmth.  The kamiks were sewn with waterproof stitching using sinew taken from along the backbone of the caribou, they are lined with the soft fur of an animal like the rabbit.

I should clarify that while I am writing about the kamiks in the past tense, like the anorak, they also remain in constant use today, thousands of years after they were first developed, another incredible example of Form Following Function.  This garment was complemented with a pair of mittens made of caribou hide and sewn with the fur facing inward.  The exact same style of mitten is made today with the exception that now the fur/hide has been tanned and so is soft and pliable and the hair will not shed.  It would seem that traditionally, Inuit hunters did not wear any form of detached head covering or hat, depending on the hoods of their anoraks to keep their heads from freezing.  I say traditionally because today, Inuit mushers/hunters in the Eastern Arctic are noted for their distinctive colourful crocheted wool toques featuring a host of geometric designs.

Today, many if not most of these traditional clothing patterns are still used and as indicated above, in some cases using exactly the same materials.  However the Inuit seamstress has adapted to the use of “modern” materials as well.  The woman’s version of the anorak is called an amautik and is designed with a special hood or pouch for carrying a baby.  Untanned caribou hide while warm, is notoriously itchy and the fur hairs are constantly shedding, making quite a mess.  Modern versions of the amautik are made from warm, soft wool fabrics like duffel, often in bright colours.  They may also be lined in turn with soft fur or other soft lining fabric.  This writer was once told by a friend who was a missionary among the coastal Inuit living  along the central Arctic coast that in the 1950’s  missionary aid groups associated with the church would send annual “Care Packages” to the small mission outposts….one of the items that were in constant demand by the local people were old fur coats from the south.  These garments, which were made from the [tanned] hides of mink, marten, sheep, muskrat and other fur bearing animals were soft and luxurious compared with the hides of the untanned caribou.  The Inuit seamstress would use these “southern” furs to line the caribou amautik and anorak.

One last comment about Inuit clothing.  The clothing items described above were not cold weather items that were put on when the thermometer dipped, they were in fact the clothing items that the Inuit dog musher/hunter wore continually.  Before moving into settlements and while still living on the land, the Inuit’s life for  the cold winter months was lived continuously at below freezing temperatures.  Even the time spent in his home, the snow house or iglu, was spent at below freezing temperatures.

Native Dog Mushers
Dog mushers who were historically part of First Nations groups living throughout Canada’s boreal forest traditionally depended on garments made of the tanned hides of large mammals such as moose, deer and caribou.  The process of tanning ensured that the hide would be much more flexible than the untanned “green” hides, making it possible for the seamstress to tailor the garment.  The mushers would wear a jacket or parka made of tanned hide with the fur removed.  This was a relatively light garment and in extreme cold it would appear that the musher would also wear a fur robe draped over the hide jacket to keep from freezing.

On his legs, the dog musher would wear leggings, again made of tanned moose or deer hide.  Each legging was like an individual “tube” that was drawn over the leg and fastened just below the hip.  It isn’t exactly clear just how this was accomplished, probably using a type of  belt  worn around the waist or possibly fastened with individual garters tied around the thigh.  Leggings actually came in different lengths, some came just above the knee.  They were tied off with garters at the ankle and the knee in order to ensure that no snow entered and that no heat was lost [and that they wouldn‘t fall down].  The length of the jacket [mid thigh] ensured that those parts of the body not covered by the leggings would be covered by the jacket.  However it isn’t clear to this writer how the First Nations musher kept his groin region covered and warm in winter.  It is assumed that the loincloth or breechcloth that was worn by First Nations men and which was clearly a part of their “summer” apparel, was also worn in the winter time and that it incorporated some form of covering for the genitals but not necessarily the buttocks.  There is a need for some more research.

The Athapascan hunter would wear winter moccasins or mukluks which were sometimes incorporated as part of the leggings.  These would be lined with soft fur or moss.  The musher would wear a fur cap and it is possible that he also wore gloves or gauntlets made of soft tanned hide, failing this he would wear mitts made of hide.  Larger fur overmitts would also be worn to guarantee that his hands would be kept warm.


POST-CONTACT TO BEGINNING OF 20tH CENTURY
First Nations people living throughout the Canadian boreal forest and arctic regions first had consistent contact with the European cultures in the 1700’s.  It is true that there were European influences in North America possibly 300 years before this [Norse contact with Inuit on Ellesmere Island and northern Newfoundland], but this was very sporadic contact and any impact on traditional First Nations culture was probably minimal.  In terms of the impact on the manner in which dog mushers would dress, the significant influences were the introduction of woven fabrics, particularly woolen fabrics, the introduction of metal  and implements used for cutting and sewing, the European  influence of tailoring garments to the shape of the body as opposed to the traditional “square cut” method utilized by First Nations seamstresses, the introduction of fabrics that allowed First Nations seamstresses to refine their weaving capabilities and the introduction of fabrics, glass beads and other items that allowed for greater diversity in terms of decorating finished articles of clothing.

It should also be noted that each borrowed from the other.  This is to say that while First Nations people readily adopted and adapted the wool blanket into their wardrobe, the Europeans just as readily incorporated the native moccasin and mukluk, leggings, the anorak, fur mittens etc. into their winter wardrobe.   One of the criticisms of the British navy, and a reason often given for the death of so many British sailors in the Arctic was that they stoically and stubbornly refused to adapt to the methods/customs of the native people  who had survived in that climate for millennia.

Perhaps this is best demonstrated in the winter dress of the Métis voyageur who was in fact the éngagé who paddled the canoes for the trading companies but he was also the “marcheur” or the person [musher] who ran the dogs for his employer, the Northwest Company or the Hudson’s Bay Company in le pays d’en haut during the winter months.

The Red River settlement which was centred at the confluence of Manitoba’s Red and Assiniboine rivers, the site of present-day Winnipeg, serves as an excellent microcosm for studying the evolution of the manner in which dog mushers dressed for the trail following contact between the Indigenous and European cultures.  This is certainly not to say that this is the only place where these changes were taking place, but for a number of reasons, including the presence of both the Northwest Company’s Fort Gibraltar and the Hudson’s Bay Company Forts of Upper and Lower Fort Garry, the establishment of the Red River Settlement by Lord Selkirk and the influx of European settlers, the thriving buffalo hunt undertaken by the significant Métis settlements in this area and the proximity to both the Hudson’s Bay and Lake Superior supply routes, the Red River settlement is an excellent place to study this topic from a historical perspective.  An excellent resource is a book entitled  The People of Red River - A Costume Guide co-authored by Barry and Judy McPherson, for the members of the Manitoba Living History Society.  Illustrations in this book are by local [Winnipeg] artist Janet La France.

“A common Métis man’s winter outfit consisted of a long capote, corduroy or tanned-skin pants held up with suspenders, cotton or wool shirts, Assomption sashes, mittens and brightly adorned moccasins.  To conserve warmth they tied the capote and pant cuffs to restrict cold air from entering and warm air from escaping.  On his head, the man might wear a cap made from the fur of an otter or muskrat.  A colourful shot pouch was often draped across the person’s chest.  If men did not have stockings or socks, they would place a rabbit skin or piece of wool in their moccasins to keep their feet warm.  They would sometimes wear a hooded cloak or cape of woolen cloth, they would also wear mittens as well as leather mitts.  Men’s outfits also included a little bib or possibly a neck handkerchief.

In addition to the military-style smoked hide coats worn by Métis men in the Mackenzie River Valley, cloth leggings made from variously coloured cloths also appear by the late nineteenth century.  Southern Métis venturing north with the fur trade likely introduced them.  The leggings were generally made of wool  cloth and decorated with floral, beaded knee high side panels and ribbon rosettes.  These were quite unlike the traditional Athapaskan leggings of tanned skin pants with attached moccasins”.  This quote is from a website www.northwestjournal.ca which includes a number of short essays on topics related to the world of voyageur history.  These comments will be elaborated on below.

Starting from the skin and working outwards, winter clothing in the post-contact period was indeed a combination of  indigenous and european influences.  European men wore trousers and sometimes knee-length breeches, presumably with some type of underwear [drawers?], First Nations men wore loin cloths and leggings.  In the winter, dog mushers would wear a combination of the above.  The leggings served as a type of snow pant or coverall, used for warmth, as a wind barrier and to keep dry.  Leggings were increasingly made of a wool fabric;  rather than hide, they could be worn alone or with an under layer, possibly a pair of trousers.  The issues with fastening the leggings remained similar to those discussed above, no-doubt there was more than one way to accomplish this task.  The leggings were often brightly decorated with embroidery or beadwork.  It is interesting to note that the two major fur trade companies seemed to have their preferred colour, with the HBC preferring blue  and the NWC preferring red.  It was also not unknown that one legging of each colour would be worn, but in reality  any colour would be used to make the leggings.  The leggings were tied with garters in order to preserve body heat, and these garters were often works of art in their own right.  With the availability of european-sourced wool and yarn, the First Nations craft of finger weaving came into its own and sashes and garters were the result.

The Assomption Sash referred to above is also known as the ceinture fléchée.  Assomption is just one Red River community where these sashes were made.  Today the ceinture fléchée with its distinctive “arrowhead” design has become a symbol closely aligned with the Métis Nation, but the sash was worn by virtually all the men of the time, both indigenous and european.  Many had some type of angular or “lightening bolt” design while others were plain and simple and were referred to as the Hudson’s Bay red sash.  The sashes were quite functional, they offered a way to tie off bulky garments like the capote, they were used to prevent drafts and to preserve body heat, when wrapped tightly around the waist they offered some support when lifting heavy loads, they could be used as a tump line when portaging and in  addition they were quite colourful and attractive.

Moccasins became the universally accepted type of footwear in the early days of the Red River Settlement.   This was primarily because there was no reliable/available source of  shoes and boots.  Europeans would arrive wearing their shoes, but once these were worn out, they were replaced with moccasins.  In reality, moccasins were an excellent and possibly even a better and more practical form of footwear.  The everyday “work boot” of the moccasin world was known as the beef boot and these were made of heavier buffalo hide, they were unadorned, were worn year round.  The moccasins [mukluks] worn by the dog mushers were made for the winter, they would come up the leg and would be made of a tanned hide, possibly with some canvas, they would be brightly adorned and they would be worn with woolen liners or duffels which would be carefully dried at the end of each working day.  Care was also taken to keep the moccasins as dry as possible.  Mukluks used with dry liners are exceptionally warm in the winter.

Hand coverings included the accepted combination of wool gloves and a hide/fur overmitt.  Beaver fur made excellent over mitts, these would be adorned with some form of embroidery, they were often “attached” to the musher using a woven tie or strap that ran behind the neck.  The loss of a glove or mitt while on the trail with a dog team could mean serious frostbite and so it was important that any dog musher [then and now] ensures that their hand covering was safe and secure.  Many dog mushers carry an extra pair of gloves or mitts in their sled bags just for this reason.

A shirt, possibly with a few buttons but no-doubt designed to be pulled over the head would be worn.  The shirt could be made of cotton, linen and even wool.  It would be worn next to the skin and so the wool, while it could provide some warmth could be very itchy and uncomfortable. Some form of neck scarf or tie would also be worn.  Again this could be of practical use for wiping away perspiration or possibly as a temporary head covering or for retaining heat from the body’s core.  No-doubt there was also some decorative or fashion statement associated with the wearing of the neck covering.

The hat or head covering was generally made of fur.  The otter skin referred to is probably actually referring to the skin of the marten.  Fur hats provide excellent heat retention, many dog mushers find them to be too hot except on exceptionally cold days and so opt for a knitted wool hat or one made of  woolen blanket cloth.  The shot pouch referred to was really the voyageur’s version of the present-day “man purse”.  Nowhere in any of his garments was there any place to keep personal belongings [i.e. no pockets].  The pouch was a place to keep his pipe and sac à feu, which contained the flint and tinder which was his way of producing fire to light his pipe or to start a fire for warmth.  It might contain his spare gloves and other personal items including some dried meat or smoked fish to be eaten as a snack on the trail.

The capote or the warm garment that is worn over everything else is almost synonymous with the image of the Métis dog musher.   “The capote was a hooded jacket made from a woolen HBC blanket and worn most commonly in the nineteenth and early twentieth century.  This garment was worn by First Nations  and Europeans universally, right across the country.  It was lightweight but warm and wearable in fall, winter and spring.  The jackets which the Métis wore extended to the knees and flared at the bottom to allow the wearer greater leg movement while running behind a dogsled.  The pattern for the capote was cut from a HBC point blanket because of their high quality and enduring use in the fur trade.  The women who made these jackets had to be very conscious of waste and proportion because the entire jacket was made from one blanket only.  Each coat became an original, unique work of art when beadwork, embroidery, sashes, fringes and quillwork were added on”.  This quote, while certainly accurate, doesn’t reflect the reality that the capote actually enjoys a history dating back to the early 18th century Europe, that the capote was not just the square cut Métis garment made from a trade blanket but there are also finely tailored juste au corps versions of the capote as well.  And the capote was widely used wherever winter weather was a given, by men and women working, travelling or having fun in the outdoors, well into the 20th century.

 
20TH CENTURY
Following are excerpts from the book Sixty Below by author Tony Onraet.  The author was a trapper in the Great Slave and Great Bear Lakes areas until the outbreak of the Second World War.  This is therefore a description of the way in which dog mushers dressed during the first half of the 20th Century.  This writer ‘s comments are added  below.

“The clothes worn by a trapper need a good deal of thought, and cost a good deal of money.  One of the things to remember is to buy quality in preference to quantity, and to bear in mind the seasonal changes in the particular part of the country you wish to go and live in.  For the Northwest Territories the following articles are necessary and by no means extravagant, having always in mind the severe winter cold.  Four good suits of woollen underwear of medium weight, worn two at a time.  Two suits of medium weight are much warmer and more comfortable than one of heavy weight, but they must be of good quality wool”.  The topic of long underwear has not be addressed previously.  Apparently one-piece underwear or the “union suit” dates back in England to the 17th century.  Early versions were made of cotton and were designed as sleepwear.  The two piece “longjohns” were a later innovation.  In this book, the author is most likely talking about a one piece union suit, that is clearly made of wool.  When did dog mushers first begin wearing wool long underwear?  Certainly it was well before the writing of this book in the late 1930’s, it would almost certainly have been a fur trade item before the mid 1800’s and then the explosion of both the Cariboo and Klondike gold rushes on the west coast brought  huge quantities of merchandise into the country…including lots of long underwear.

“Heavy woollen socks, about twenty pairs.  This sounds a lot, but when you come to think that five pairs at a time is the average worn by people in the North, it isn’t much--just four sets”.  It is very quickly evident that the key to remaining warm in the north at this time is the use of wool clothing.  Remember, this is before the advent of synthetic fabrics and wool was clearly the best choice for warmth, if not for comfort.  Wool has the advantage of providing warmth even when wet and it is therefore worn next to the skin where perspiration could be an issue.

“There is a saying in the north which I found to be only too true, that if your feet and hands are warm you are warm all over.  For your feet, then four sets of woollen socks, one pair of duffels [these are a slipper-like affair made of heavy white blanket material called duffle cloth, and worth many pairs of socks] and a pair of moccasins, or mukluks”.
This was clearly the best way to keep feet warm in bitterly cold weather.  Several layers of wool socks or duffles had the effect of trapping air which in turn became heated by the perspiration.  With the use of a good pair of tanned moose hide moccasins [Note: the terms moccasin and mukluk  are used interchangeably and do not refer to moccasin slippers but rather to foot coverings that come up the leg, certainly above the ankle.  The Inuit refer to their mukluks as kamiks, they are made of untanned seal and caribou hide and are sewn in a manner that renders them completely waterproof.  It is certainly not unknown for white and even native travellers to wear kamiks if they could be obtained], this heated air is trapped and works to keep the feet warm.  In order for this to be effective, however, the hide moccasins or mukluks must remain dry.  This isn’t a problem when the temperature is well below zero and the snow is dry.  However during warm spells, with wet snow and even open water, moccasins will become wet and soggy and the feet will quickly freeze.  To help keep the feet dry in marginal conditions, especially in the spring, moccasin rubbers are often worn over the moccasins.  These specially designed rubbers have no arch support built into them, they cover the foot part of the moccasins or mukluks and can be easily removed when going indoors.   It is also very common when visiting a home for  the owner to give the guest a broom to facilitate removing any loose snow from the mukluks so that it will not melt and make the moccasins soggy and uncomfortable once exposed to the heat inside the house.


“For your hands a pair of duffle mitts and a pair of moose hide mitts over that.  A pair of breeches, any good quality woollen goods; a flannel or woollen material shirt; a jacket of much the same material and cut as the army battledress blouse, or a good pure wool pullover sweater.  The Siwashs on the west coast of British Columbia make the best kind from unspun yarn”.     Here the writer is actually referring to the famous Siwash sweater made famous by the knitters of the Cowichan Indian Band on Vancouver Island.  The wool wasn’t “unspun” rather it was largely unwashed and a finished garment often contained pieces of straw and small twigs….but the sweaters are very warm.  The writer also refers to breeches which are knee-length leg coverings and which were definitely still worn at this time, as were full length woolen trousers.

“The last top garments are a pair of snow pants and a parka.  Neither need to be heavy, balloon silk is the best material, light and windproof.  No matter how warmly dressed in woollen clothes you may be, the icy winds cut right through while travelling on lakes or open spaces, and the snow pants and parka are ideal for the purpose of keeping the wind out.  The ordinary snow pants and parka are made with the least possible openings.  The pants are just roomy knickers with elastic at the knees and waist.  The parka is just like a big shirt with a very small opening at the neck and a hood to pull over the head”.   The writer is talking about an anorak-like garment however it is to be used as a windbreak rather than for its warmth, so he is actually talking about an anorak shell.  Dog mushers during this era also wore cotton coveralls or overalls essentially to be used as a windbreak.  These would be oversized so that they could easily be worn over the rest of the clothing that was really doing the job of heat retention.  Cotton, of course has no heat retention value of its own, and when it is wet is of absolutely no value.

Finally the author adds….“you also want waders and a felt hat”.  There is actually something quite nostalgic about the wool peaked caps worn by all outdoorsmen but particularly dog mushers during the first half of the 20th century.

It is interesting that the author  ends this section of his book with a statement about Form Following Function.  “Dressed up that way you can stand ‘most any weather in the bush country, but as in the case of the eiderdown sleeping robe, it is wise to adopt the native Eskimo clothing of skins and reindeer socks in the Barren Lands or for Arctic Sea travel”.


PRESENT DAY
As we move into the present, there have been some dramatic changes in the manner in which dog mushers dress.  These changes are due primarily to an increased understanding of the causes and the effects of hypothermia as well as to the development of a plethora of new synthetic fabrics that play a role in the task of keeping warm while being very active in cold weather.  If there is one word that conceptualizes the modern-day approach to remaining warm in the cold, it is the word LAYERING.

Modern synthetics, particularly those made of polyester and polypropylene are used for foundation or undergarments and are worn next to the skin.  These have the unique quality of being able to wick the moisture away from the sweating body, thereby keeping the individual dry and warm.  Interestingly, the same function can be accomplished by using wool and the refinement of soft merino wool garments has led to the development of wool undergarments that are not itchy and uncomfortable when worn next to the skin.  So the first layer is designed to keep the skin dry and to begin the process of dissipating the excess moist body heat that is one of the by-products of physical exertion.

This excess moist body heat must then be transferred through the next or second layer which is actually designed to produce warmth by retaining body heat [but not the moisture].  This second layer is known as a soft shell if the weather is not too cold or as the weather gets colder as a midlayer and in extreme cold as insulated outerwear.  A host of synthetics known generically as polar fleece will accomplish this task, these have the ecological claim to fame of being largely made from discarded and recycled plastic pop bottles.

Polar fleece comes in different weights, the colder the weather the heavier the polar fleece or midlayer.  Some polar fleece is laminated to another synthetic fabric that will  act as a windblock while still allowing the moist excess body heat to pass through.  Polar fleece is lightweight, extremely versatile and it works by trapping the air in its fibres, this air in turn is heated by the body.  This is also exactly the way in which a good wool sweater works, and indeed wool sweaters may be worn in place of polar fleece.  A third type of garment that is used to retain heat is a down-filled “sweater” or sometimes a vest.  The development  and widespread use of down-filled garments is something that started with the famous 5 Star Woods down-filled sleeping bag or eider down and as technology has advanced, down is now used in footwear, overpants, sweaters, head wear, gloves and mitts.  Down-filled garments however are not good at allowing the excess moisture to dissipate and when they become wet, they lose all of their heat retention abilities and are useless for keeping the wearer warm although a type of ‘waterproo’ down [feathers that have been washed in a hydrophobic coating] are now available for use.

In extremely cold weather, it is necessary to bring out the “big guns” for retaining warmth and this is where the parka [made with either eider down, synthetic fibrefill --one brand name is Primaloft, heavy polar-fleece, wool blanketing or fur] comes into play.  When fighting a battle with extreme cold, the desire is to retain as much of the body heat as possible, and dissipating the  moisture becomes less of a priority.  This is where the traditional anorak could also be worn, these types of garments are what are known as insulated outerwear.

The third layer is some way of keeping the winter wind from sucking away all of the warmth that has been created and stored in the second layer, this is the weatherproofing layer.  Some type of wind barrier is required.  This could be as simple as a nylon or silk shell or it could be another of the newer synthetic fabrics that are designed to act as a windbreak while still allowing excess body heat/moisture to dissipate.  Often the shell of a parka or anorak will be made of one of these fabrics that will also have yet an additional quality which is that it is extremely durable.  This is important for dog mushers as their clothing takes a lot of abuse, especially from dogs with sharp nails that might jump up on them.  As if that isn’t enough to expect from a fabric, there are some that will also provide a certain amount of water resistance and will not become saturated when snow melts on them, these are known as waterproof breathable fabrics.

It is important not to forget the rest of the body, namely the legs and lower torso.  The layering continues with a base or wicking layer of polypropylene underwear and then either heavy wool pants, polar fleece pants that look a lot like sweat pants or some type of sturdy bib overall pants that could be down filled or filled with a synthetic fibre.  Experience will tell the dog musher just what clothing he/she should wear for the conditions.

A common form of head covering is the wool toque, it works extremely well, is easy to pack and is inexpensive.  But not all toques are created equal and today there are wool toques that are layered with polar fleece and even a reflective wind barrier called Thinsulate.  All mushers have their own preference for head covering and virtually all will do an admirable job.  

But many dog mushers aren’t very high tech in their approach to equipment and clothing…in fact one of the real appeals of dog mushing is the intimate connection with the past and a way of life that is now not very common.  These are the mushers who will wear insulated canvas bib overalls [known generically as Carharts] over their wool one-piece long johns, heavy insulated boots [known generically as Felt Packs or Sorels], some form of insulated shirt under the Carharts, a fur hat often with some kind of animal tail attached to it, green or yellow brushed cotton work gloves that are actually intended to be disposable along with warm over mitts,  and if necessary, a duck parka with a hood….with everything looking like it could use a good wash.  The fact is, this combination probably will work very well in almost all conditions, and if it means that the money that could have been spent on the high tech clothing is actually going into high quality dog food, that makes it all the better.

An impressive array of footwear has been developed to keep feet warm and dry in extreme winter weather.  Some developments have been more successful and practical than others.  Again the goal is to keep feet as dry as possible [both from internal sweating and external sources of moisture like melting snow] while providing good insulation value, durability and excellent traction in snowy and icy conditions and all of this in a fairly compact “package” that is not too cumbersome.  I won’t go into the details, every manufacturer makes their own claims, here are the proven characteristics of good winter footwear.

The “good” winter footwear has provision for a fair bit of insulation between the bottom of the foot and the snow and ice, it incorporates some form of increasingly sophisticated duffle liner[s] that can be removed, dried out and replaced.  There is now an electric foot liner on the market that is operated by a remote control that the wearer carries in his pocket. Good winter footwear is fairly lightweight, has good traction, is very durable and usually made of leather or a heavy synthetic fabric like Cordura, it comes up well above the ankle, and is fairly easy to put on and off.

There are however some exceptions to these specifications that warrant some mention.

Moosehide moccasins or mukluks with good wool socks and duffles are still among the very best winter footwear for keeping feet warm and for being light to wear.  They run into trouble in wet conditions, they do not provide the best traction and they do not offer much protection if the foot takes a bang or a scrape on a log or rock, but moccasins may be the best footwear example of Form Following Function.  The use of moccasin rubbers addresses some of these issues.  A present-day manufacturer of hide moccasins, Steger Moosehide Moccasins and Mukluks produces a product that looks to be very traditional but with a waterproof/skid proof rubber sole “welded” to the bottom of the moccasin.
The Bunny Boot was developed during WWII and goes against all of the above-mentioned rules.  These boots are essentially two layers of rubber with air trapped between the two layers, almost like a vacuum.  The intent is to wear very light socks, even no socks and to let your feet sweat.  The vacuum construction is designed to heat the moisture that is now trapped inside the boot and this acts to keep your feet very warm.  These boots are clumsy looking,  they are quite heavy, but they do have reasonably good traction.  The downside is that prolonged use leads to significant foot damage as the skin on the feet begins to break down as it is exposed to extremely unhealthy moist and warm conditions for prolonged periods of time.  But those who have used them report that they do keep the feet warm.
A version of the Bunny Boot is the Muck Boot or one of its spinoffs, all of which have names like Bog or Swamp boots.  These boots are designed to look like old fashioned rubber boots but are made of neoprene re-enforced with rubber.  They work on a principle similar to the Bunny Boot, the intent is to wear very light socks and to let your feet sweat, the neoprene will “heat up” the moisture and keep the feet warm.  The “Arctic” version of this boot makes claims to keep your feet warm to -40C/F however this is not true…anything below -15C the feet start to feel cool and clammy.  In this age of global warming, these are great boots for anything above the -25C temperature.
Neos is the brand name of an overshoe or overboot that is designed to be worn over regular footwear like running shoes.  The manufacturer emphasizes that Neos are very different from the old-style “galoshes” that many of us wore over our street shoes when we were children.  Neos come in regular and insulated versions, claim to offer good warmth, water proofing, traction, durability and ease of use.  They even have one style that specifically states that it was developed for mushing.  These boots have been used in both the Yukon Quest and the Iditarod with good reviews.
 Norwegian wool felt boots  brand name “Lobbens” have been popular in Scandinavia for many years.  The claim is that they will  keep feet warm to -50C.  A special advantage of the wool felt is that it "breathes" and you never get clammy feet. Their special sole features a unique tread which is very positive in snowy and icy conditions. They are durable, yet light on your feet. The claim is that these qualities make the Lobbens popular with dog mushers.


BIBLIOGRAPHY
Sixty Below, Tony Onraet, Jonathan Cape Ltd., Toronto, Ontario, 1944

The People of Red River --A Costume Guide, Barry and Judy McPherson, Relish Design Studio Ltd., Printed and bound in Canada by Printcrafters, 2009